New software for automated cilia detection in cells (ACDC)

Abstract Background Primary cilia frequency and length are key metrics in studies of ciliogenesis and ciliopathies. Typically, quantitative cilia analysis is done manually, which is very time-consuming. While some open-source and commercial image analysis software applications can segment input data, they still require the user to optimize many parameters, suffer from user bias, and often lack rigorous performance quality assessment (e.g., false positives and false negatives). Further, optimal parameter combinations vary in detection accuracy depending on cilia reporter, cell type, and imaging modality. A good automated solution would analyze images quickly, robustly, and adaptably—across different experimental data sets—without significantly compromising the accuracy of manual analysis. Methods To solve this problem, we developed a new software for automated cilia detection in cells (ACDC). The software operates through four main steps: image importation, pre-processing, detection auto-optimization, and analysis. From a data set, a representative image with manually selected cilia (i.e., Ground Truth) is used for detection auto-optimization based on four parameters: signal-to-noise ratio, length, directional score, and intensity standard deviation. Millions of parameter combinations are automatically evaluated and optimized according to an accuracy ‘F1’ score, based on the amount of false positives and false negatives. Afterwards, the optimized parameter combination is used for automated detection and analysis of the entire data set. Results The ACDC software accurately and adaptably detected nuclei and primary cilia across different cell types (NIH3T3, RPE1), cilia reporters (AcTub, Smo-GFP, Arl13b), and image magnifications (60×, 40×). We found that false-positive and false-negative rates for Arl13b-stained cilia were 1–6%, yielding high F1 scores of 0.96–0.97 (max. = 1.00). The software detected significant differences in mean cilia length between control and cytochalasin D-treated cell populations and could monitor dynamic changes in cilia length from movie recordings. Automated analysis offered up to a 96-fold speed enhancement compared to manual analysis, requiring around 5 s/image, or nearly 18,000 cilia analyzed/hour. Conclusion The ACDC software is a solution for robust automated analysis of microscopic images of ciliated cells. The software is extremely adaptable, accurate, and offers immense time-savings compared to traditional manual analysis.